How Food Relates to the Body

Nutrients Overview

A nutrient is a substance used by an organism to survive, grow, and reproduce. The requirement for dietary nutrient intake applies to animals, plants, fungi, and protists. Nutrients can be incorporated into cells for metabolic purposes or excreted by cells to create non-cellular structures, such as hair, scales, feathers, or exoskeletons. Some nutrients can be metabolically converted to smaller molecules in the process of releasing energy, such as for carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and fermentation products (ethanol or vinegar), leading to end-products of water and carbon dioxide. All organisms require water. Essential nutrients for animals are the energy sources, some of the amino acids that are combined to create proteins, a subset of fatty acids, vitamins and certain minerals. Plants require more diverse minerals absorbed through roots, plus carbon dioxide and oxygen absorbed through leaves. Fungi live on dead or living organic matter and meet nutrient needs from their host.

Different types of organism have different essential nutrients. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is essential, meaning it must be consumed in sufficient amounts, to humans and some other animal species, but not to all animals and not to plants, which are able to synthesize it. Nutrients may be organic or inorganic: organic compounds include most compounds containing carbon, while all other chemicals are inorganic. Inorganic nutrients include nutrients such as iron, selenium, and zinc, while organic nutrients include, among many others, energy-providing compounds and vitamins.

A classification used primarily to describe nutrient needs of animals divides nutrients into macronutrients and micronutrients. Consumed in relatively large amounts (grams or ounces), macronutrients (carbohydrates, fats, proteins, water) are used primarily to generate energy or to incorporate into tissues for growth and repair. Micronutrients are needed in smaller amounts (milligrams or micrograms); they have subtle biochemical and physiological roles in cellular processes, like vascular functions or nerve conduction. Inadequate amounts of essential nutrients, or diseases that interfere with absorption, result in a deficiency state that compromises growth, survival and reproduction. Consumer advisories for dietary nutrient intakes, such as the United States Dietary Reference Intake, are based on deficiency outcomes[clarification needed] and provide macronutrient and micronutrient guides for both lower and upper limits of intake. In many countries, macronutrients and micronutrients in significant content[clarification needed] are required by regulations to be displayed on food product labels. Nutrients in larger quantities than the body needs may have harmful effects.[1] Edible plants also contain thousands of compounds generally called phytochemicals which have unknown effects on disease or health, including a diverse class with non-nutrient status called polyphenols, which remain poorly understood as of 2017.

Plant nutrients consist of more than a dozen minerals absorbed through roots, plus carbon dioxide and oxygen absorbed or released through leaves. All organisms obtain all their nutrients from the surrounding environment.[2][3]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutrient


Human nutrition

Human nutrition deals with the provision of essential nutrients in food that are necessary to support human life and health. Poor nutrition is a chronic problem often linked to poverty, food security or a poor understanding of nutrition and dietary practices.[1] Malnutrition and its consequences are large contributors to deaths and disabilities worldwide.[2] Good nutrition is necessary for children to grow physically, and for normal human biological development.[1]

Fats

A molecule of dietary fat typically consists of several fatty acids (containing long chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms), bonded to a glycerol. They are typically found as triglycerides (three fatty acids attached to one glycerol backbone). Fats may be classified as saturated or unsaturated depending on the chemical structure of the fatty acids involved. Saturated fats have all of the carbon atoms in their fatty acid chains bonded to hydrogen atoms, whereas unsaturated fats have some of these carbon atoms double-bonded, so their molecules have relatively fewer hydrogen atoms than a saturated fatty acid of the same length. Unsaturated fats may be further classified as monounsaturated (one double-bond) or polyunsaturated (many double-bonds). Furthermore, depending on the location of the double-bond in the fatty acid chain, unsaturated fatty acids are classified as omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acids. Trans fats are a type of unsaturated fat with trans-isomer bonds; these are rare in nature and in foods from natural sources; they are typically created in an industrial process called (partial) hydrogenation. There are nine kilocalories in each gram of fat. Fatty acids such as conjugated linoleic acid, catalpic acid, eleostearic acid and punicic acid, in addition to providing energy, represent potent immune modulatory molecules.

Saturated fats (typically from animal sources) have been a staple in many world cultures for millennia. Unsaturated fats (e. g., vegetable oil) are considered healthier, while trans fats are to be avoided. Saturated and some trans fats are typically solid at room temperature (such as butter or lard), while unsaturated fats are typically liquids (such as olive oil or flaxseed oil). Trans fats are very rare in nature, and have been shown to be highly detrimental to human health, but have properties useful in the food processing industry, such as rancidity resistance.[25]

Essential Fatty Acids

Most fatty acids are non-essential, meaning the body can produce them as needed, generally from other fatty acids and always by expending energy to do so. However, in humans, at least two fatty acids are essential and must be included in the diet. An appropriate balance of essential fatty acids—omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids—seems also important for health, although definitive experimental demonstration has been elusive. Both of these “omega” long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids are substrates for a class of eicosanoids known as prostaglandins, which have roles throughout the human body.

The omega-3 eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), which can be made in the human body from the omega-3 essential fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), or taken in through marine food sources, serves as a building block for series 3 prostaglandins (e.g., weakly inflammatory PGE3). The omega-6 dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA) serves as a building block for series 1 prostaglandins (e.g. anti-inflammatory PGE1), whereas arachidonic acid (AA) serves as a building block for series 2 prostaglandins (e.g. pro-inflammatory PGE 2). Both DGLA and AA can be made from the omega-6 linoleic acid (LA) in the human body, or can be taken in directly through food. An appropriately balanced intake of omega-3 and omega-6 partly determines the relative production of different prostaglandins. In industrialized societies, people typically consume large amounts of processed vegetable oils, which have reduced amounts of the essential fatty acids along with too much of omega-6 fatty acids relative to omega-3 fatty acids.

The conversion rate of omega-6 DGLA to AA largely determines the production of the prostaglandins PGE1 and PGE2. Omega-3 EPA prevents AA from being released from membranes, thereby skewing prostaglandin balance away from pro-inflammatory PGE2 (made from AA) toward anti-inflammatory PGE1 (made from DGLA). The conversion (desaturation) of DGLA to AA is controlled by the enzyme delta-5-desaturase, which in turn is controlled by hormones such as insulin (up-regulation) and glucagon (down-regulation).

Proteins

Proteins are essential nutrients for the human body.[1] They are one of the building blocks of body tissue and can also serve as a fuel source. As a fuel, proteins provide as much energy density as carbohydrates: 4 kcal (17 kJ) per gram; in contrast, lipids provide 9 kcal (37 kJ) per gram. The most important aspect and defining characteristic of protein from a nutritional standpoint is its amino acid composition.[2]

Proteins are polymer chains made of Amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. During human digestion, proteins are broken down in the stomach to smaller polypeptide chains via hydrochloric acid and protease actions. This is crucial for the absorption of the essential amino acids that cannot be biosynthesized by the body.[3]

There are nine essential amino acids which humans must obtain from their diet in order to prevent protein-energy malnutrition and resulting death. They are phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, and histidine.[2][4] There has been debate as to whether there are 8 or 9 essential amino acids.[5] The consensus seems to lean towards 9 since histidine is not synthesized in adults.[6] There are five amino acids which humans are able to synthesize in the body. These five are alanine, aspartic acid, asparagine, glutamic acid and serine. There are six conditionally essential amino acids whose synthesis can be limited under special pathophysiological conditions, such as prematurity in the infant or individuals in severe catabolic distress. These six are arginine, cysteine, glycine, glutamine, proline and tyrosine.[2] Dietary sources of protein include meats, dairy products, fish, eggs, grains, legumes, nuts[7] and edible insects.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_(nutrient)

Amino Acids

An essential amino acid, or indispensable amino acid, is an amino acid that cannot be synthesized de novo (from scratch) by the organism at a rate commensurate with its demand, and thus must be supplied in its diet. Of the 21 amino acids common to all life forms, the nine amino acids humans cannot synthesize are phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, and histidine.[1][2]

Six other amino acids are considered conditionally essential in the human diet, meaning their synthesis can be limited under special pathophysiological conditions, such as prematurity in the infant or individuals in severe catabolic distress.[2] These six are arginine, cysteine, glycine, glutamine, proline, and tyrosine. Six amino acids are non-essential (dispensable) in humans, meaning they can be synthesized in sufficient quantities in the body. These six are alanine, aspartic acid, asparagine, glutamic acid, serine,[2] and selenocysteine (considered the 21st amino acid). Pyrrolysine (considered the 22nd amino acid) is not used by humans; thus, it is non‑essential.

The limiting amino acid is the essential amino acid found in the smallest quantity in the foodstuff, most plant-based foods have a limiting amino acid. This concept is important when calculating animal feeds. A complete protein contains all the essential amino acids in the right balance; meat, milk and eggs are complete protein sources for humans.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_amino_acid

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates may be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides or polysaccharides depending on the number of monomer (sugar) units they contain. They are a diverse group of substances, with a range of chemical, physical and physiological properties.[11] They make up a large part of foods such as rice, noodles, bread, and other grain-based products,[12][13] but they are not an essential nutrient, meaning a human does not need to eat carbohydrates.[14] The brain is the largest consumer of sugars in the human body, and uses particularly large amounts of glucose, accounting for 20% of total body glucose consumption.[15] The brain uses mostly glucose for energy; if glucose is insufficient however, it switches to using fats.[16]

Monosaccharides contain one sugar unit, disaccharides two, and polysaccharides three or more. Monosaccharides include glucose, fructose and galactose.[17] Disaccharides include sucrose, lactose, and maltose; purified sucrose, for instance, is used as table sugar.[18] Polysaccharides, which include starch and glycogen, are often referred to as ‘complex’ carbohydrates because they are typically long multiple-branched chains of sugar units.

Traditionally, simple carbohydrates were believed to be absorbed quickly, and therefore to raise blood-glucose levels more rapidly than complex carbohydrates. This, however, is not accurate.[19][20][21][22] Some simple carbohydrates (e.g., fructose) follow different metabolic pathways (e.g., fructolysis) that result in only a partial catabolism to glucose, while, in essence, many complex carbohydrates may be digested at the same rate as simple carbohydrates.[23] The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that added sugars should represent no more than 10% of total energy intake.[24]

The most common plant carbohydrate nutrient, starch, varies in its absorption. Gelatinized starch (starch heated for a few minutes in the presence of water) is far more digestible than plain starch, and starch which has been divided into fine particles is also more absorbable during digestion. The increased effort and decreased availability reduces the available energy from starchy foods substantially and can be seen experimentally in rats and anecdotally in humans. Additionally, up to a third of dietary starch may be unavailable due to mechanical or chemical difficulty.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition

Monosaccharides/ single molecule sugar chains

Glucose = Honey / Fruit

Fructose = Corn Syrup / Tomatoes

Galactose = Dairy Products & Meat / Legumes

Disaccharides / double molecule sugar chains

Sucrose = Table Sugar / Peanut Butter

Lactose = Dairy / Cheese

Maltose = Grains / Beer

Polysaccharides / multi bonded sugar chains

Starches = Potatoes / Grains

Glycogen = Fresh Fruits / Whole Grains

Dietary Fiber / is considered a carbohydrate

Dietary fiber is a carbohydrate, specifically a polysaccharide, which is incompletely absorbed in humans and in some animals. Like all carbohydrates, when it is metabolized, it can produce four Calories (kilocalories) of energy per gram, but in most circumstances, it accounts for less than that because of its limited absorption and digestibility.

The two subcategories are insoluble and soluble fiber. Insoluble dietary fiber Consists mainly of cellulose, a large carbohydrate polymer that is indigestible by humans, because humans do not have the required enzymes to break it down, and the human digestive system does not harbor enough of the types of microbes that can do so. Soluble dietary fiber Comprises a variety of oligosaccharides, waxes, esters, resistant starches, and other carbohydrates that dissolve or gelatinize in water. Many of these soluble fibers can be fermented or partially fermented by microbes in the human digestive system to produce short-chain fatty acids which are absorbed.

Whole grains, beans, and other legumes, fruits (especially plums, prunes, and figs), and vegetables are good sources of dietary fiber. Fiber is important to digestive health. Fiber can help in alleviating both constipation and diarrhea by increasing the weight and size of stool and softening it. Fiber provides bulk to the intestinal contents, and insoluble fiber especially stimulates peristalsis – the rhythmic muscular contractions of the intestines which move digesta along the digestive tract. Some soluble fibers produce a solution of high viscosity; this is essentially a gel, which slows the movement of food through the intestines. By slowing the absorption of sugar, fiber may help lower blood glucose levels, lessening insulin spikes and reducing the risk of type 2 diabetes.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition

Water

Water is excreted from the body in multiple forms; including urine and feces, sweating, and by water vapour in the exhaled breath. Therefore, it is necessary to adequately rehydrate to replace lost fluids.

Early recommendations for the quantity of water required for maintenance of good health suggested that 6–8 glasses of water daily is the minimum to maintain proper hydration.[32] However the notion that a person should consume eight glasses of water per day cannot be traced to a credible scientific source.[33] The original water intake recommendation in 1945 by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research Council read: “An ordinary standard for diverse persons is 1 milliliter for each calorie of food. Most of this quantity is contained in prepared foods.”[34] More recent comparisons of well-known recommendations on fluid intake have revealed large discrepancies in the volumes of water we need to consume for good health.[35] Therefore, to help standardize guidelines, recommendations for water consumption are included in two recent European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) documents (2010): (i) Food-based dietary guidelines and (ii) Dietary reference values for water or adequate daily intakes (ADI).[36] These specifications were provided by calculating adequate intakes from measured intakes in populations of individuals with “desirable osmolarity values of urine and desirable water volumes per energy unit consumed.”[36]

For healthful hydration, the current EFSA guidelines recommend total water intakes of 2.0 L/day for adult females and 2.5 L/day for adult males. These reference values include water from drinking water, other beverages, and from food. About 80% of our daily water requirement comes from the beverages we drink, with the remaining 20% coming from food.[37] Water content varies depending on the type of food consumed, with fruit and vegetables containing more than cereals, for example.[38] These values are estimated using country-specific food balance sheets published by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations.[38]

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition#Water

Minerals

In the context of nutrition, a mineral is a chemical element required as an essential nutrient by organisms to perform functions necessary for life.[1][2][3] However, the four major structural elements in the human body by weight (oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen), are usually not included in lists of major nutrient minerals (nitrogen is considered a “mineral” for plants, as it often is included in fertilizers). These four elements compose about 96% of the weight of the human body, and major minerals (macrominerals) and minor minerals (also called trace elements) compose the remainder.

Nutrient minerals, being elements, cannot be synthesized biochemically by living organisms.[4] Plants get minerals from soil.[4] Most of the minerals in a human diet come from eating plants and animals or from drinking water.[4] As a group, minerals are one of the four groups of essential nutrients, the others of which are vitamins, essential fatty acids, and essential amino acids.[5] The five major minerals in the human body are calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and magnesium.[2] All of the remaining elements in a human body are called “trace elements”. The trace elements that have a specific biochemical function in the human body are sulfur, iron, chlorine, cobalt, copper, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, iodine, and selenium.[6]

Most chemical elements that are ingested by organisms are in the form of simple compounds. Plants absorb dissolved elements in soils, which are subsequently ingested by the herbivores and omnivores that eat them, and the elements move up the food chain. Larger organisms may also consume soil (geophagia) or use mineral resources, such as salt licks, to obtain limited minerals unavailable through other dietary sources.

Bacteria and fungi play an essential role in the weathering of primary elements that results in the release of nutrients for their own nutrition and for the nutrition of other species in the ecological food chain. One element, cobalt, is available for use by animals only after having been processed into complex molecules (e.g., vitamin B12) by bacteria. Minerals are used by animals and microorganisms for the process of mineralizing structures, called “biomineralization“, used to construct bones, seashells, eggshells, exoskeletons.

Roles of Minerals in biological processes

Dietary elementCategoryHigh nutrient density
dietary sources
Calcium
Macromineral
Needed for muscle, heart and digestive system health, builds bone, supports synthesis and function of blood cellsDairy products, eggs, canned fish with bones (salmon, sardines), green leafy vegetables, nuts, seeds, tofu, thyme, oregano, dill, cinnamon.[17]
Chlorine
Macromineral
Needed for production of hydrochloric acid in the stomach and in cellular pump functionsTable salt (sodium chloride) is the main dietary source.
Chromium
Trace Mineral
Involved in glucose and lipid metabolism, although its mechanisms of action in the body and the amounts needed for optimal health are not well-defined[27][28]Broccoli, grape juice (especially red), meat, whole grain products[29]
Cobalt
Trace Mineral
Required in the synthesis of vitamin B12, but because bacteria are required to synthesize the vitamin, it is usually considered part of vitamin B12 which comes from eating animals and animal-sourced foods (eggs…)
Copper
Trace Mineral
Required component of many redox enzymes, including cytochrome c oxidaseLiver, seafood, oysters, nuts, seeds; some: whole grains, legumes[24]
Iodine
Trace Mineral
Required for synthesis of thyroid hormones, thyroxine and triiodothyronine and to prevent goiter: Iodine in biologySeaweed (kelp or kombu)*, grains, eggs, iodized salt[25]
Iron
Trace Mineral
Required for many proteins and enzymes, notably hemoglobin to prevent anemiaMeat, seafood, nuts, beans, dark chocolate[22]
Magnesium
Macromineral
Required for processing ATP and for bonesSpinach, legumes, nuts, seeds, whole grains, peanut butter, avocado[21]
Manganese
Trace Mineral
A cofactor in enzyme functionsGrains, legumes, seeds, nuts, leafy vegetables, tea, coffee[24]
Molybdenum
Trace Mineral
The oxidases xanthine oxidase, aldehyde oxidase, and sulfite oxidase[30]Legumes, whole grains, nuts[24]
Phosphorus
Macromineral
A component of bones (see apatite), cells, in energy processing, in DNA and ATP (as phosphate) and many other functionsRed meat, dairy foods, fish, poultry, bread, rice, oats.[18][19] In biological contexts, usually seen as phosphate[20]
Potassium
Macromineral
A systemic electrolyte and is essential in coregulating ATP with sodiumSweet potato, tomato, potato, beans, lentils, dairy products, seafood, banana, prune, carrot, orange[16]
Selenium
Trace Mineral
Essential to activity of antioxidant enzymes like glutathione peroxidaseBrazil nuts, seafoods, organ meats, meats, grains, dairy products, eggs[32]
Sodium
Macromineral
A systemic electrolyte and is essential in coregulating ATP with potassiumTable salt (sodium chloride, the main source), sea vegetables, milk, and spinach.
Zinc
Trace Mineral
Pervasive and required for several enzymes such as carboxypeptidase, liver alcohol dehydrogenase, and carbonic anhydrase. Oysters*, red meat, poultry, nuts, whole grains, dairy products[23]

Full View at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral_(nutrient)

Vitamins

Except for vitamin D, vitamins are essential nutrients,[40] necessary in the diet for good health. Vitamin D can be synthesized in the skin in the presence of UVB radiation. (Many animal species can synthesize vitamin C, but humans cannot.) Certain vitamin-like compounds that are recommended in the diet, such as carnitine, are thought useful for survival and health, but these are not “essential” dietary nutrients because the human body has some capacity to produce them from other compounds. Moreover, thousands of different phytochemicals have recently been discovered in food (particularly in fresh vegetables), which may have desirable properties including antioxidant activity (see below); experimental demonstration has been suggestive but inconclusive. Other essential nutrients not classed as vitamins include essential amino acids (see above), essential fatty acids (see above), and the minerals discussed in the preceding section.[medical citation needed]

Vitamin deficiencies may result in disease conditions: goiter, scurvy, osteoporosis, impaired immune system, disorders of cell metabolism, certain forms of cancer, symptoms of premature aging, and poor psychological health (including eating disorders), among many others.[56]

Excess levels of some vitamins are also dangerous to health. The Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine has established Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs) for seven vitamins.[57]

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition#Vitamins

List of Vitamins and their Functions

Vitamin generic
descriptor name
Vitamer chemical name(s) (list not complete)SolubilityFood sources
Vitamin A all-transRetinol, Retinals, and
alternative provitamin A-functioning Carotenoids
including all-transbeta-carotene
Fatfrom animal origin as Vitamin A / all-trans-Retinol: Fish in general, liver and dairy products; from plant origin as provitamin A / all-trans-beta-carotene: orange, ripe yellow fruits, leafy vegetables, carrots, pumpkin, squash, spinach;
Vitamin B1ThiamineWaterPork, wholemeal grains, brown rice, vegetables, potatoes, liver, eggs
Vitamin B2RiboflavinWaterDairy products, bananas, green beans, asparagus
Vitamin B3Niacin, Niacinamide, Nicotinamide ribosideWaterMeat, fish, eggs, many vegetables, mushrooms, tree nuts
Vitamin B5Pantothenic acidWaterMeat, broccoli, avocados
Vitamin B6Pyridoxine, Pyridoxamine, PyridoxalWaterMeat, vegetables, tree nuts, bananas
Vitamin B7BiotinWaterRaw egg yolk, liver, peanuts, leafy green vegetables
Vitamin B9Folates, Folic acidWaterLeafy vegetables, pasta, bread, cereal, liver
Vitamin B12Cyanocobalamin, Hydroxocobalamin, Methylcobalamin, AdenosylcobalaminWaterMeat, poultry, fish, eggs, milk
Vitamin CAscorbic acidWaterMany fruits and vegetables, liver
Vitamin DCholecalciferol (D3), Ergocalciferol (D2)FatLichen, eggs, liver, certain fish species such as sardines, certain mushroom species such as shiitake
Vitamin ETocopherols, TocotrienolsFatMany fruits and vegetables, nuts and seeds, and seed oils
Vitamin KPhylloquinone, MenaquinonesFatLeafy green vegetables such as spinach; egg yolks; liver
Full view at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin

Antioxidants

An antioxidant is a molecule stable enough to donate an electron to a rampaging free radical and neutralize it, thus reducing its capacity to damage. These antioxidants delay or inhibit cellular damage mainly through their free radical scavenging property.[30] These low-molecular-weight antioxidants can safely interact with free radicals and terminate the chain reaction before vital molecules are damaged. Some of such antioxidants, including glutathione, ubiquinol, and uric acid, are produced during normal metabolism in the body.[31] Other lighter antioxidants are found in the diet. Although there are several enzymes system within the body that scavenge free radicals, the principle micronutrient (vitamins) antioxidants are vitamin E (α-tocopherol), vitamin C (ascorbic acid), and B-carotene.[32] The body cannot manufacture these micronutrients, so they must be supplied in the diet.

Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3249911/

List of Antioxidants

This is a list of antioxidants naturally occurring in food. Vitamin C and vitamin E – which are ubiquitous among raw plant foods, they are confirmed as dietary antioxidants, whereas vitamin A becomes an antioxidant following metabolism of provitamin A beta-carotene and cryptoxanthin. Most food compounds listed as antioxidants – such as polyphenols common in colorful, edible plants

Anitoxidants, in Food

Vitamins with antioxidant function

Vitamin cofactors and minerals

Many vitamins are cofactors which help enzymes to catalyze reactions, such as the production of important proteins. Vitamin C, is a cofactor for the production of the connective tissue collagen.

  • Coenzyme Q10 – Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) is an antioxidant that your body produces naturally. Your cells use CoQ10 for growth and maintenance. CoQ10 is found in meat, fish and whole grains.
  • Manganese, particularly when in its +2 valence state as part of the enzyme called superoxide dismutase (SOD). It is a powerful antioxidant that seeks out the free radicals in the human body. A number of manganese-activated enzymes play important roles in the metabolism of carbohydrates, amino acids, and cholesterol (4). Rich sources of manganese include whole grains, nuts, leafy vegetables, and teas. – Foods high in phytic acid, such as beans, seeds, nuts, whole grains, and soy products, or foods high in oxalic acid, such as cabbage, spinach, and sweet potatoes, may slightly inhibit manganese absorption. Although teas are rich sources of manganese, the tannins present in tea may moderately reduce the absorption of manganese. Intake of other minerals, including iron, calcium, and phosphorus, have been found to limit retention of manganese.
  • Iodide, In addition to being a component of the thyroid hormone, iodine can be an antioxidant as well as an antiproliferative and differentiation agent that helps to maintain the integrity of several organs with the ability to take up iodine. Iodine is an essential nutrient. The most common forms of iodine in a diet are iodide and iodate, with additional iodo-organic compounds providing a small fraction of bioavailable iodine. It is found maily in seawater, seafood, and iodine-enriched food, such as iodized table salt.

https://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements-coenzyme-q10/art-20362602

https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/minerals/manganese

https://assets.thermofisher.com/TFS-Assets/CMD/Application-Notes/AN-239-IC-Iodide-Seawater-AN71348-EN.pdf

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3752513/

Hormones

  • Melatonin, is a major scavenger of both oxygen- and nitrogen-based reactive molecules. It has scavenging actions at both physiologic and pharmacologic concentrations. Not only melatonin but also several of its metabolites can detoxify free radicals and their derivatives and aid in raising Glutathione levels. it is abundant in Tart Cherries, Walnuts, Mustard seed, Ginger root, Corn and many more

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2582546/

http://www.immunehealthscience.com/foods-with-melatonin.html

Carotenoid terpenoids

  • Alpha-carotene – found in carrots, winter squash, tomatoes, green beans, cilantro, Swiss chard
  • Astaxanthin – found naturally in red algae and animals higher in the marine food chain. It is a red pigment familiarly recognized in crustacean shells and salmon flesh/roe.
  • Beta-carotene – found in high concentrations in butternut squash, carrots, orange bell peppers, pumpkins, kale, peaches, apricots, mango, turnip greens, broccoli, spinach, and sweet potatoes.
  • Canthaxanthin
  • Cryptoxanthin – present in papaya, egg yolk, butter, apples
  • Lutein – found in high concentration in spinach, kale, Swiss chard, collard greens, beet and mustard greens, endive, red pepper and okra
  • Lycopene – found in high concentration in cooked red tomato products like canned tomatoes, tomato sauce, tomato juice and garden cocktails, guava and watermelons.
  • Zeaxanthin – best sources are kale, collard greens, spinach, turnip greens, Swiss chard, mustard and beet greens, corn, and broccoli

Natural phenols

Natural phenols are a class of molecules found in abundance in plants.

Flavonoids

Flavonoids, a subset of polyphenol antioxidants, are present in many berries, as well as in coffee and tea.

Phenolic acids and their esters

polyphenol antioxidant

  • Chicoric acid – another caffeic acid derivative, is found in chicory and Echinacea.
  • Chlorogenic acid – found in high concentration in coffee (more concentrated in robusta than arabica beans), blueberries and tomatoes. Produced from esterification of caffeic acid.
  • Cinnamic acid and its derivatives, such as ferulic acid – found in seeds of plants such as in brown rice, whole wheat and oats, as well as in coffee, apple, artichoke, peanut, orange and pineapple.
  • Ellagic acid – found in high concentration in raspberry and strawberry, and in ester form in red wine tannins.
  • Ellagitannins – hydrolyzable tannin polymer formed when ellagic acid, a polyphenol monomer, esterifies and binds with the hydroxyl group of a polyol carbohydrate such as glucose.
  • Gallic acid – found in gallnuts, sumac, witch hazel, tea leaves, oak bark, and many other plants.
  • Gallotannins – hydrolyzable tannin polymer formed when gallic acid, a polyphenol monomer, esterifies and binds with the hydroxyl group of a polyol carbohydrate such as glucose.
  • Rosmarinic acid – found in high concentration in rosemary, oregano, lemon balm, sage, and marjoram.
  • Salicylic acid – found in most vegetables, fruits, and herbs; but most abundantly in the bark of willow trees, from where it was extracted for use in the early manufacture of aspirin.

Other nonflavonoid phenolics

Other nonflavonoid phenolics

Main Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_antioxidants_in_food

Examples of bioactive antioxidant compounds

Antioxidants are classified into two broad divisions, depending on whether they are soluble in water (hydrophilic) or in lipids (lipophilic). In general, water-soluble antioxidants react with oxidants in the cell cytosol and the blood plasma, while lipid-soluble antioxidants protect cell membranes from lipid peroxidation.[31] These compounds may be synthesized in the body or obtained from the diet.[32] The different antioxidants are present at a wide range of concentrations in body fluids and tissues, with some such as glutathione or ubiquinone mostly present within cells, while others such as uric acid are more evenly distributed (see table below). Some antioxidants are only found in a few organisms and these compounds can be important in pathogens and can be virulence factors.[50]

The relative importance and interactions between these different antioxidants is a very complex question, with the various antioxidant compounds and antioxidant enzyme systems having synergistic and interdependent effects on one another

AntioxidantSolubility
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C)Water
Glutathione ( built of amino acids: glutamate, glycine and cysteine)Water
Lipoic acid (octanoic acid is the Precursor)Water
Uric acid (is produced by the enzyme xanthine oxidase)Water
Carotenes (Orange Foods; Carrots, Pumpkin, Cantaloupe, Mango)Lipid
α-Tocopherol (vitamin E)Lipid
Ubiquinol (coenzyme Q)Lipid

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioxidant#Examples_of_bioactive_antioxidant_compounds

Enzymes

Enzymes /ˈɛnzaɪmz/ are both proteins and biological catalysts (biocatalysts). Catalysts accelerate chemical reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different molecules known as products. Almost all metabolic processes in the cell need enzyme catalysis in order to occur at rates fast enough to sustain life.[1]:8.1 Metabolic pathways depend upon enzymes to catalyze individual steps.

Several enzymes can work together in a specific order, creating metabolic pathways.[1]:30.1 In a metabolic pathway, one enzyme takes the product of another enzyme as a substrate. After the catalytic reaction, the product is then passed on to another enzyme. Sometimes more than one enzyme can catalyze the same reaction in parallel; this can allow more complex regulation. Enzymes determine what steps occur in these pathways. Without enzymes, metabolism would neither progress through the same steps and could not be regulated to serve the needs of the cell.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme#Metabolism

List of Enzymes

Examples of Enzymes – and Functions in the Body

  1. Digestive: Amylase, Trypsin, lipase.
  2. Metabolic: Oxidase, hydrolases, lygases, cytochrome -450
  3. Liver: Serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT), Serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase (SGPT).
  4. Nucleases: Topoisomerase, endonuclease, DNA polymerase
  5. Receptor enzymes: These are enzymes which are part of certain types of receptors. Ex: phosphokinases,

Pre and Probiotics

Prebiotics

Prebiotics are compounds in food that induce the growth or activity of beneficial microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. The most common example is in the gastrointestinal tract, where prebiotics can alter the composition of organisms in the gut microbiome. Dietary prebiotics are typically nondigestible fiber compounds that pass undigested through the upper part of the gastrointestinal tract and stimulate the growth or activity of advantageous bacteria that colonize the large bowel by acting as substrate for them. Flaxseed, Psyllium husk and chia have great prebiotic activity.

Probiotics

Probiotics are live microorganisms that are intended to have health benefits when consumed or applied to the body,specially to the mirobiom/gut flora. They can be found in yogurt and other fermented foods, seaweeds and dietary supplements.

Probiotics may contain a variety of microorganisms. The most common are bacteria that belong to groups called Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium. Other bacteria may also be used as probiotics, and so may yeasts such as Saccharomyces boulardii. Different types of probiotics may have different effects. For example, if a specific kind of Lactobacillus helps prevent an illness, that doesn’t necessarily mean that another kind of Lactobacillus or any of the Bifidobacterium probiotics would do the same thing.

Probiotic genomic and proteomic studies have identified several genes and specific compounds derived from probiotics, which mediate immunoregulatory effects. Studies regarding the biological consequences of probiotics in host immunity suggested that they regulate the functions of systemic and mucosal immune cells and intestinal epithelial cells. Thus, probiotics showed therapeutic potential for diseases, including several immune response-related diseases, such as allergy, eczema, viral infection, and potentiating vaccination responses.

https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/probiotics-what-you-need-to-know

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4006993/

lacto-fermented sour dough

Lectins

what is a lectin, exactly?

Lectins are carbohydrate-binding proteins that are highly specific for sugar groups of other molecules with an amino acid binding site, being a protein. Lectins have a role in recognition on the cellular and molecular level and play numerous roles in biological recognition phenomena involving cells, carbohydrates, and proteins. Lectins also mediate attachment and binding of bacteria and viruses to their intended targets.

Lectins are ubiquitous in nature and are found in many foods. Some foods such as beans and grains need to be cooked or fermented to reduce lectin content. Some lectins are beneficial, such as CLEC11A, which promotes bone growth, while others may be powerful toxins such as ricin.

Lectins may be disabled by specific mono- and oligosaccharides, which bind to ingested lectins from grains, legumes, nightshade plants, and dairy; binding can prevent their attachment to the carbohydrates within the cell membrane.[4] The selectivity of lectins means that they are useful for analyzing blood type, and they have been researched for potential use in genetically engineered crops to transfer pest resistance.

Lectins generally are plant proteins. They’re found in all sorts of members of the vegetable kingdom, and they happen to be one of nature’s greatest defenses against any hungry animal and human. Not all lectins are toxic. But many are, and when you’ve got a lectin-intolerance, you don’t want to ingest any one of these plant proteins, because the consequences can be severe.

Plant life supposes; If you eat something that makes you sick, you’ll steer clear of it the next time you’re hungry. By forcing you to ingest harmful lectins, Nature’s protected itself.

A lectin is a type of protein (susceptible to various diseases, bacteria, and viruses) that forces carbs (sugars, starches, and fibers) to clump together and even attach to certain cells in your body when you eat them.

what happens in my stomach when I eat lectins

Whenever you eat a seed, a certain kind of grain or even the skin of a fruit or vegetable, the lectins inside it scout out the sugars in your body. Not only that, they look for the ones they can latch onto most easily. They particularly like to grab hold of sialic acid – a type of sugar found in your brain, gut, nervous tissue, and even in human milk. This incredible ability to latch onto sugars and bind carbohydrates earns lectins the name sticky proteins.

Often, lectins can get in the way of important cells communicating with one another. And when that happens, the body’s response is usually inflammation or some other type of reaction to toxicity, like nausea, diarrhea, or vomiting.5 A break in cellular communication can also result in symptoms like fatigue or forgetfulness.

In addition to causing digestive issues, the sticky nature of lectins can allow them to grab onto and fuse together harmful bacteria and viruses. Not only that, but lectins can actually help those bacteria and viruses stick to the cells in the body they’re looking for. So, in some cases, people with lectin sensitivities might also get sick or infected more often than those without sensitivities.

High-Lectin Foods

While wheat and grains are the lectin-rich foods the public seems to be most concerned with, there are several foods you might want to ditch (or at least consume in moderation) if you discover you’re indeed sensitive to lectins.

Here’s a shortlist of potential foods high in lectins:

● Soy
● Barley
● Lentils
● Rice
● Lima Beans
● Red Kidney Beans
● Potatoes
● Split Peas
● Wheat

Table of Major Plant lectins

  Lectin SymbolLectin nameSource
Mannose-binding lectins
ConAConcanavalin AJack Bean
LCHLentil lectinLentils
GNASnowdrop lectinSnowdrop
Galactose / N-acetylgalactosamine binding lectins
RCARicin, Ricinus communis Agglutinin, RCA120Castor Bean
PNAPeanut agglutininPea Nut
AILJacalinMulberry
VVLHairy vetch lectinHairy Vetch
N-acetylglucosamine binding lectins
WGAWheat Germ Agglutinin, WGAWheat
N-acetylneuraminic acid binding lectins
SNAElderberry lectinElderberry
MALMaackia amurensis leukoagglutininMaackia amurensis
MAHMaackia amurensis hemoagglutininMaackia amurensis
Fucose binding lectins
UEAUlex europaeus agglutininPea
AALAleuria aurantia lectinOrange peel fungus

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lectin

Lectins and Bood types

Lectins may interfere in specific way depending on blood type.

Source: www.livebloodonline.com

Strengthening the Immune System

Organs of the immune system

Dramatic changes in socioeconomic status, cultural traditions, population growth, and agriculture are affecting diets worldwide. Understanding how our diet and nutritional status influence the composition and dynamic operations of our gut microbial communities, and the innate and adaptive arms of our immune system, represents an area of scientific need, opportunity and challenge. The insights gleaned should help address a number of pressing global health problems.

Human nutrition, the gut microbiome, and immune system: envisioning the future

A number of reviews have appeared recently about efforts to decipher the interactions between the innate and adaptive immune system and the tens of trillions of microbes that live in our gastrointestinal tracts (‘the gut microbiota’). Here we emphasize how the time is right and the need is great to better understand the interrelationships between diet, nutritional status, the immune system and microbial ecology in humans at different stages of life, living in distinct cultural and socioeconomic settings

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3298082/

The Immune System – Your Body’s OPERATING SYSTEM

Here an explanation of the functions of the immune system out of a systems approach (looking at the entire body and it functions). In the video, in the link below you’ll find relevant information, starting at 7:56 of the video if you wish to skip the politics (Which are not in line with the viewpoints of food-from-soil)

CoVid19 and the Immun System

In past weeks it has become clear how invasive this novel virus really is. To be best prepared, e need to understand first, how this virus acts and why it is so dangerous.

After the SARS outbreak, the World Health Organization reported that the disease typically attacked the lungs in three phases: viral replication, immune hyper-reactivity, and pulmonary destruction.

Source: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2020/02/here-is-what-coronavirus-does-to-the-body/

Diseases such as covid-19 and influenza can be fatal due to an overreaction of the body’s immune system called a cytokine storm.

Cytokines are small proteins released by many different cells in the body, including those of the immune system where they coordinate the body’s response against infection and trigger inflammation. The name ‘cytokine’ is derived from the Greek words for cell (cyto) and movement (kinos).

Sometimes the body’s response to infection can go into overdrive. For example, when SARS -CoV-2 – the virus behind the covid-19 pandemic – enters the lungs, it triggers an immune response, attracting immune cells to the region to attack the virus, resulting in localised inflammation. But in some patients, excessive or uncontrolled levels of cytokines are released which then activate more immune cells, resulting in hyperinflammation. This can seriously harm or even kill the patient.

Cytokine storms are a common complication not only of covid-19 and flu but of other respiratory diseases caused by coronaviruses such as SARS and MERS. They are also associated with non-infectious diseases such as multiple sclerosis and pancreatitis.

The phenomenon became more widely known after the 2005 outbreak of the avian H5N1 influenza virus, also known as “bird flu”, when the high fatality rate was linked to an out-of-control cytokine response.

Cytokine storms might explain why some people have a severe reaction to coronaviruses while others only experience mild symptoms. They could also be the reason why younger people are less affected, as their immune systems are less developed and so produce lower levels of inflammation-driving cytokines.

Read more: https://www.newscientist.com/term/cytokine-storm/#ixzz6InsfvfAG

We need to understand that the immune system needs specific supplements to not go into overdive or supression. Not every herbal remedy is good during these times, nut we need to prepare our bodies for what may come. Immuno-regulating herbs and supplements are are a safer choice, having a balancing effect on our immune system not shutting it down or wearing it out.

Supplements to help our Immune System balance

Vitamin A – builds cytocarotinoids which line cell membranes inhibiting the virus from taking hold in the cell. Abundant in dark leafy greens, liver and carrots

Rolls of Vitamin A in the Immune System https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6162863/

Vitamin D3 – Is the sterilant of the inner cell, eliminating pathogens that may take hold.

The Role of Vitamin D3 in our immune System https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3166406/

Vitamin C – contributes to immune defense by supporting various cellular functions of both the innate and adaptive immune system. Vitamin C supports epithelial barrier function against pathogens. The intestinal epithelium (single cell layer lining gastrointestinal tract) acts as a selectively permeable barrier permitting the absorption of nutrients, electrolytes and water, while maintaining an effective defense against intraluminal toxins, antigens and enteric flora.

Vitamin C and its Immune Functions https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29099763

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4266989/

Zinc – affects multiple aspects of the immune system (10). Zinc is crucial for normal development and function of cells mediating innate immunity, neutrophils, and NK cells (Natural Killer cells). The ability of zinc to function as an anti-oxidant and stabilize membranes suggests that it has a role in the prevention of free radical-induced injury during inflammatory processes.

Zinc in Human Health: Effect of Zinc on Immune Cells https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2277319/

Probiotics – One of the major mechanisms of probiotic action is through the regulation of host immune response.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4006993/

Mushroom complexes for immune Regulation – influence the cytokine patterns. Cytokines are cross-regulatory, and the expression of one pattern of cytokines can modulate other cytokine patterns.

Mushrooms known and studies for Immune Regulation:

Agaricus; Agaricus blazei

Reishi, lingzhi; Ganoderma lucidum

Cordyceps, Caterpillar Mushroom; Cordyceps sinesis

Turkey Tail ; Trametes versicolor (formerly Coriolus versicolor)

Maitake; Grifolia frondosa

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4684115/

Internal Function of the Body we can Supplement

Sleep: During sleep our body regenerates the best and as such activates self healing properties.

Glutathion supplementation as a product or by supporting the body with the building blocks it needs, can help us protect the body from free redicals and oxidative stress. Glutathione is a tripeptide (cysteine, glycine, and glutamic acid) found in most cells, at the same concentration as glucose, potassium, and cholesterol. It is involved in the detoxification of both xenobiotic and endogenous compounds. It facilitates excretion from cells, facilitates excretion from body and directly neutralizes many oxidative chemicals.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4684116/

Cysteine, like other common amino acids, is found in high-protein like animal roducts and food rich in sulfur as garlic and onion. Although classified as a nonessential amino acid, in rare cases, cysteine may be essential for infants, the elderly, and individuals with certain metabolic diseases or who suffer from malabsorption syndromes. Cysteine can usually be synthesized by the human body under normal physiological conditions

N-Acetyl-l-cysteine N-A-C is a derivative of cysteine. It is sold as a dietary supplement, and used as an antidote in cases of acetaminophen overdose.

Glycine is integral to the formation of alpha-helices in secondary protein structure. It is the most abundant amino acid in collagen. It is found in high abundance in Gelantine and cartilage parts like tendons and in bone broth. Pork skin, Meat, Wild Game and Crustaceans also contain high amounts of glycine. Plants have lower Amounts but we can find it in Nuts, Seeds and Legumes. Glycine is also available in supplemental form.

Glutamic acid is an α-amino acid that is used by almost all living beings in the biosynthesis of proteins. It is non-essential in humans, meaning the body can synthesize it. It is also an excitatory neurotransmitter, in fact the most abundant one, in the vertebrate nervous system. High protein foods like bone broth, fish, dairy, eggs and meat as well as soy, seed, cabbage and seaweed.

Due to the extensive use of MSG Mono Sodium Glutamate we do not need to supplement other than with a healthy diet.

Herbs to avoid during coVid19

Considering the immune reaction of our bodies, and the build up of macrophages (Phlegm) leading to enhanced cytokine proteins to activate macrophage production and as thus leading to pneumonia and eventually to ARDS Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrom, patients are latterly drowning by fluid filling u the lungs. For these reasons macrophage activating herbs like Echinacea, Cat’s Claw, and Saw Palmetto, may be avoided.

The Potency of Immunomodulatory Herbs May Be Primarily Dependent upon Macrophage Activation https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6358565_The_Potency_of_Immunomodulatory_Herbs_May_Be_Primarily_Dependent_upon_Macrophage_Activation

Macrophage – innate immunity

Macrophage Activating Herbs to be Avoided

Echinacea

Cats Claw

Ginseng

Astragalus


Immune system effects of echinacea, ginseng, and astragalus: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15035888

Cat’s claw inhibits TNF production and scavenges free radicals: Role in cytoprotection https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12360226_Cat’s_claw_inhibits_TNF_production_and_scavenges_free_radicals_Role_in_cytoprotection